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8. Children of addicted parents score lower on tests
measuring school achievement and they exhibit other difficulties
in school.
Sons of addicted parents performed worse on all domains
measuring school achievement, using the Peabody Individual
Achievement Test-Revised (PIAT-R), including general
information, reading recognition, reading comprehension, total
reading, mathematics and spelling.29
In general, children of alcoholic parents do less well on
academic measures. They also have higher rates of school
absenteeism and are more likely to leave school, be retained, or
be referred to the school psychologist than are children of
nonalcoholic parents.30
In one study, 41% of addicted parents reported that at least
one of their children repeated a grade in school, 1 9% were
involved in truancy, and 30% had been suspended from school.31
Children of addicted parents compared to children of
non-addicted parents were found at significant disadvantage on
standard scores of arithmetic.32
9. Maternal consumption of alcohol and other drugs during any
time of pregnancy can cause birth defects or neurological deficits.
Studies have shown that exposure to cocaine during fetal
development may lead to subtle but significant deficits later on,
especially with behaviors that are crucial to success in the
classroom, such as blocking out distractions and concentrating for
long periods.33
Cognitive performance is less affected by alcohol exposure in
infants and children whose mothers stopped drinking in early
pregnancy, despite the mothers' resumption of alcohol use after
giving birth.34
Prenatal alcohol effects have been detected at moderate levels of
alcohol consumption in nonalcoholic women. Even though a mother may
not regularly abuse alcohol, her child may not be spared the effects
of prenatal alcohol exposure.35
10. Children of addicted parents may benefit from supportive
adult efforts to help them.
Children who coped effectively with the trauma of growing up in
families affected by alcoholism often relied on the support of a
non-alcoholic parent, stepparent, grandparent, teachers and others.36
Children of addicted parents who rely on other supportive adults
have increased autonomy and independence, stronger social skills,
better ability to cope with difficult emotional experiences, and
better day-to-day coping strategies.37
Group programs reduce feelings of isolation, shame and guilt among
children of alcoholics while capitalizing on the importance to
adolescents of peer influence and mutual support.38
Competencies such as the ability to establish and maintain
intimate relationships, express feelings, and solve problems can be
improved by building the self-esteem and self-efficacy of children
of alcoholics.39
Kumpfer, K.L. (1999). Outcome measures of interventions in the study
of children of substance-abusing parents. Pediatrics. Supplement.
103 (5): 1128-1144.
2 Schuckit, M.A., Goodwin, D.A., & Winokur, G. (1972). A study of
alcoholism in half siblings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 128:
1132-1136.
Goodwin, D.W. (1985). Alcoholism and genetics. Archives of General
Psychiatry, 42, 171-174.
4 Fawzy, F.I., Coombs, R.H., & Gerber, B. (1983). Generational
continuity in the use of substances: the impact of parental
substance use on adolescent substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 8,
109-114.
5 Skiffington, E.W. & Brown, P.M. (1981). Personal, home, and school
factors related to eleventh graders' drug attitudes. International
Journal of the Addictions, 16(5), 879-892.
6 Barnes, G.M., & Windle, M. (1987). Family factors in adolescent
alcohol and drug abuse. Pediatrician, 14, 13-18.
McDermott, D. (1984).The relationship of parental drug use and
parents' attitude concerning adolescent drug use to adolescent drug
use. Adolescence, XIX(73), 89-97.
8 Moos, R.H. & Billings, A.G. (1982). Children of alcoholics during
the recovery process: alcoholic and matched control families.
Addictive Behaviors, 7:155-163.
9 el Guebaly, N. & Offord, D.R. (1997). The offspring of alcoholics:
a critical review. American Journal of Psychiatry. 134:4, 357-365.
Kumpfer, K.L. & DeMarsh, J. (1986). Family environmental and genetic
influences on children's future chemical dependency. In Ezekoye, S.,
Kumpfer, K., & Bukoski, W., eds. Childhood and Chemical Abuse,
Prevention and Intervention. New York, NY: Haworth Press.
11 Tarter, R.E., Blackson, T.C., Martin, C.S., Loeber, R., & Moss,
H.B. (1993). Characteristics and correlates of child discipline
practices in substance abuse and normal families. The American
Journal on Addictions, 2(1), 18-25.
12 Reid, J., Macchetto, P., & Foster, S. (1999). No Safe Haven:
Children of Substance-Abusing Parents. Center on Addiction and
Substance Abuse at Columbia University.
13 Ibid, page 2.
14 Famularo, R., Kinscherff, R., & Fenton, T. (1992). Parental
substance abuse and the nature of child maltreatment. Child Abuse
and Neglect, vol. 16.
15 Leventhal, J.M., Garber, R.B., & Brady, C.A. (1989).
Identification during the postpartum period of infants who are at
high risk of child maltreatment. The Journal of Pediatrics, 114(3),
481-487.
16 Reid, J., Macchetto, P., & Foster, S. (1999). No Safe Haven:
Children of Substance-Abusing Parents. Center on Addiction and
Substance Abuse at Columbia University.
Booth, R.E., & Zhang, Y. (1996). Severe aggression and related
conduct problems among runaway and homeless adolescents. Psychiatric
Services, 47 (1) 75-80.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. National estimates on
the number of boarder babies, the cost of their care, and the number
of abandoned infants. Found online at http://waisgate.hhs.gov/cgi-bin/
waisgate: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
19 Fitzgerald, H.E., Sullivan, L.A., Ham, H.P., Zucker, R.A.,
Bruckel, S., Schneider, A.M., & Noll, R.B. (1993). Predictors of
behavior problems in three-year-old sons of alcoholics: early
evidence for the onset of risk. Child Development, 64, 110-123.
20 Earls, F., Reich, W., Jung, K.G., & Cloninger, C.R. (1988).
Psychopathology in children of alcoholic and antisocial parents.
Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 12:481-487.
21 West, M.O. & Printz, R.J. (1987). Parental alcoholism and
childhood psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin,102,204-218.
Children of Alcoholics in the Medical System: Hidden Problems,
Hidden Costs. New York, NY: Children of Alcoholics Foundation, 1990.
23 Reid, J., Macchetto, P., & Foster, S. (1999). No Safe Haven:
Children of Substance-Abusing Parents. Center on Addiction and
Substance Abuse at Columbia University.
The National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Available
online at:
http://www.health.Org/govstudy/BKD265/Chapter4b.htmtt4.4.
"
Rivinus, T.M., Levoy, D., Matzko, M., & Seifer, R. (1992).
Hospitalized children of substance-abusing parents and sexually
abused children: a comparison. Journal of the American Academy of
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31 (6), 1019-1923.
26 Earls, R, Reich, W., Jung, K.G., & Cloninger, C.R. (1998).
Psychopathology in children of alcoholic and antisocial parents.
Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 12:481-487.
Jones, M.C. (1968). Personality correlates and antecedents of
drinking patterns in adult males. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 33:2-12.
28 Tarter, R.E., Blackson, T.C., Martin, C.S., Loeber, R., & Moss,
H.B. (1993). Characteristics and correlates of child discipline
practices in substance abuse and normal families. The American
Journal on Addictions.
2 (1), 18-25.
29 Moss, H.B., Vanyukov, M., Majumder, P.P., Kirisci, L., & Tarter,
R.E. (1995). Pre-pubertal sons of substance abusers: influences of
parental and familial substance abuse on behavioral disposition, IQ,
and school achievement. Addictive Behaviors, 20 (3), 345-358.
30 Sher, K.J. (1997). Psychological characteristics of children of
alcoholics. Alcohol Health and Research World, Vol. 21. No. 3.
31 Kolar, A.F., Brown, B.S., Haertzen, C.A., & Michaelson, B.S.
(1994). Children of substance abusers: the life experiences of
children of opiate addicts in methadone maintenance. American
Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 20:2; 159-171.
33
34
Johnson, J., Boney, T., & Brown, B. (1990). Evidence of depressive
symptoms in children of substance abusers. International Journal of
the Addictions, 25 (4-A), 465-479.
National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health. 25
Years of Discovery to Advance the Health of the Public. October 18,
1999. Page 42.
Gabrielli, W.F., & Mednic, S.A. (1983). Intellectual performance in
children of alcoholics. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,
171:444-447.
35 Larkby, C., & Day, N. (1997). The effects of prenatal alcohol
exposure. Alcohol Health and Research World, vol. 21, no. 3:192-197.
36 Werner, E.E., & Johnson, J.L. (2000). The role of caring adults
in the lives of children of alcoholics. Children of Alcoholics:
Selected Readings, Vol.2.
Werner, E.E. (1986). Resilient offspring of alcoholics: a
longitudinal study from birth to age 18. Journal of Studies on
Alcohol, vol. 47, no. 1, 34-40.
38 Dies, R.R. & Burghardt, K. (1991). Group interventions for
children of alcoholics: prevention and treatment in the schools.
Journal of Adolescent Group Therapy l(3):219-234.
39 Nastasi, B.K. & DeZolt, D.M. (1994). School Interventions for
Children of Alcoholics. New York: Guilford Press.
National Association for Children of Alcoholics
11426 Rockville Pike, Suite 100 Rockville, MD 20852
1-888-55-4COAS (2627) Fax (301)468-0987
www.nacoa.org www.nacoa.net
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